by George Brosi

In 1984 the British philosopher, Stephen Toulmin, published a book entitled An Introduction to Reasoning. In this book he named six elements essential to good arguments.

1. Claim: The first step in an argument is to make a claim. This is essentially the thesis statement. It answers the question, "What are you trying to prove?" There are three kinds of claims: claims of fact, claims of value, and claims of policy.

A. Claims of fact. To establish that a claim is factual, it is first necessary to define all terms and then to distinguish it from an inference by citing data--either examples or statistics-- that are sufficient, accurate, recent, typical, authoritative and appropriate.

B. Claims of value. These very different claims represent either moral or aesthetic judgements which are not at all factual. However, here, too, all terms must be carefully defined. They may be substantiated by citing authorities who are qualified and unbiased or by arguing that your claim creates good results or meets basic needs--such as the need for belonging for esteem and for self-actualization--or that ignoring it produces bad results or keeps basic needs from being met.

C. Claims of policy. To prove a policy claim it is necessary to show that the policy you support is both feasible and positive. Thus a policy claim involves both claims of fact and value.

2. Grounds: The grounds provide the support or evidence for the claim. They answer the question, "What have you got to go on?"

3. Warrant: The warrant consists of the assumptions which connect the claim with the grounds or support. It answers the question, "How did you get there?" Most, but not all, arguments require this kind of support. In a classic deductive syllogism, the grounds correspond to the minor premise, the warrant to the major premise, and the claim to the conclusion.

4. Backing: The backing establishes the warrant. Warrants can be established by claims of either fact or value. Often warrants are backed by cause and effect or comparative reasoning.

5. Qualifier: Many arguments are only valid if qualified or accepted with reservations. Thus an essential part of a good argument is making these qualifications explicit and reasonable. The qualifier can apply to either the claim or the warrant.

6. Rebuttal: A good argument takes both sides into consideration.